This work investigates the tradition of Pushkaralu as practiced in South India. Specifically, it interrogates the origins, geographical spread, scriptural basis, and political motives behind the celebration of river-based festivals tied to Jupiter's 12-year transit.

Was Pushkaralu truly an ancient practice, or a symbolic creation in response to North India’s Kumbh Mela and Ardh Kumbh? Were tributaries like Pranahita and Tungabhadra mythically elevated to push a larger religious-cultural narrative? Were rivers like Mahanadi, Penna, Sabarmati, and Pamba excluded because they had no anchoring in this astrological construct?

This research seeks to answer these questions with facts, inscriptions, literary records, and cultural analysis.

I. What Is Pushkaralu?

Pushkaralu refers to the 12-year festival cycle attributed to a river when Brihaspati (Jupiter) enters a specific zodiac sign associated with that river. It is now celebrated for 12 rivers, including the Godavari, Krishna, and recently, the Saraswati.

But unlike Kumbh, which is deeply rooted in Puranic lore and Vedic symbolism, Pushkaralu is neither mentioned in the Vedas nor codified in major Puranas. It appears to be based on later astrological beliefs, first found in texts like:

• Jataka Parijata (1426 CE)
• Brihat Samhita (Varahamihira, 6th century CE) – general astrological influence, but no festival guidance

There is no inscriptional evidence suggesting that Pushkara as a sage or deity entered Indian temple or royal life before the late medieval period.

II. Historical References to Pushkaralu:

The idea of river-based festivals is not new to Indian civilization. However, the specific construct of a 12-year Jupiter-linked cycle called Pushkaralu finds no reference in the historical records of South India’s major dynasties. Below is a deeper look at the river-related rituals of the major kingdoms before the British era.

Kakatiyas (12th–14th century CE):

• The Kakatiyas were prolific builders of temples, tanks (cheruvus), and irrigation structures, as evidenced by inscriptions from Warangal, Hanmakonda, Palampet, and Kaleshwaram.
• River-based rituals during their time centered around:
  - Construction of bathing ghats and mandapas along the Godavari and its tributaries.
  - Annual and seasonal pilgrimages to riverside temples like Kaleshwaram and Dharmapuri.
  - Temple inscriptions mentioning donations during solar/lunar eclipses and Sankranti Festivals.
• However, none of their inscriptions mention a 12-year Jupiter-linked Pushkaram. There was no fixed zodiac-linked river pilgrimage under their rule.
   

Reddy Kings (14th–15th century CE):

• The Reddy dynasty ruled over coastal Andhra and patronized Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Their grants mention:
  - Renovation and patronage of pilgrimage sites like Draksharamam and Srisailam.
  - Establishment of tanks and temple rituals in conjunction with agricultural cycles.
  - Ritual donations during annual Brahmotsavams.
  Despite ruling regions along the Godavari and Krishna, they left behind no inscriptional or literary evidence of Pushkaralu or any 12-year astrological pilgrimage framework.
   

Vijayanagara Empire (14th–17th century CE):

• The Vijayanagara Empire’s epigraphic records are among the most detailed in Indian history. Key religious patterns include:
  - Regular Brahmotsavams and temple festivals tied to lunar and solar events.
  - Donations recorded during eclipses, Navaratri, and significant temple consecrations.
  - Sacred rivers like Tungabhadra were venerated, especially near Hampi.
   
• Krishnadevaraya’s famous literary work *Amuktamalyada* glorifies tirthas (pilgrimage sites), but makes no reference to a cyclic Pushkaralu festival.
• Not a single copper plate or temple inscription from the empire's 300-year rule associates rivers with the 12-year Pushkara cycle.
   

Classical Literature:

• Poets like Tikkana and Nannaya, and saints like Palkuriki Somanatha, composed devotional poetry centered on rivers and pilgrimage:
  - Descriptions of holy rivers as metaphors for purity and liberation.
  - Praise for confluences like Triveni Sangam.

• Yet, there is no mention of Jupiter’s transit or Pushkara-based festivals. The concept of river sanctity was timeless, but not mapped to astrological cycles.
   

Foreign Accounts:

• Foreign travelers to South India—like Abdur Razzak (Persian), Duarte Barbosa (Portuguese), and Niccolò de’ Conti (Italian)—offer rich descriptions of festivals.
• They documented festivals at prominent temples like Tirupati and Srisailam.
•  However, none reported events akin to Pushkaralu or mass river congregations based on astrological timings.

III. British Gazetteers: First Factual Mention

• The earliest mentions of Pushkaralu emerge from the 19th-century records of the Madras Presidency.
• District gazetteers from this period note large gatherings at the Godavari and Krishna rivers every 12 years, coinciding with Jupiter's transit.
• The term "Pushkaralu" appears in English transliterations within these administrative documents.
• Notably, other rivers such as Tungabhadra, Pranahita, and Bhima were not initially associated with this festival.
• This pattern suggests that Pushkaralu was systematized during colonial administration, possibly influenced by local Brahmin communities and temple authorities aiming to establish a festival paralleling North India's Kumbh Mela.
• During the British colonial period, there is no documented evidence of a formalized Cauvery Pushkaram festival akin to the Pushkaralu observed along the Godavari and Krishna rivers. While the Cauvery River has long held religious significance, particularly in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, the structured 12-year cycle of river festivals linked to Jupiter's transit appears to be a more recent development.
• Historical records, including those from the Madras Presidency, do not mention a Cauvery Pushkaram during the 19th or early 20th centuries. The earliest references to organized Pushkaram festivals are primarily associated with the Godavari and Krishna rivers, as noted in district records from the Madras Presidency. These records document large gatherings at these rivers every 12 years, coinciding with Jupiter's transit, and the term "Pushkaralu" appears in English transliterations within these contexts.
• The absence of similar documentation for the Cauvery suggests that the formalization of a Cauvery Pushkaram festival may have been influenced by the desire to establish a parallel to the northern Kumbh Mela and the southern Pushkaralu of the Godavari and Krishna rivers. This institutionalization likely occurred in the post-colonial period, shaped by local religious communities and temple authorities seeking to enhance the spiritual prestige of the Cauvery River.
• In summary, while the Cauvery River has always been revered, the structured 12-year Pushkaram festival associated with it does not appear to have been practiced during the British era. The festival's current form is likely a modern development, emerging in the latter half of the 20th century.

IV. The Expansion of the 12 River Model

The modern list of 12 rivers mapped to zodiac signs is:

Questions arise:

Despite their geographical and cultural importance:
- Pamba is revered in Kerala (linked to Sabarimala) but has no Pushkaralu tradition.
- Mahanadi flows through Chhattisgarh and Odisha yet no record of astrology-based festivals.
- Sabarmati, crucial to Gujarat, has no connection to the 12-year cycle.
- Penna, an important South Indian river, is sometimes included, sometimes ignored.

This inconsistency strongly suggests that the Pushkaralu system was artificially stretched to fit an astrological framework — not grown organically from regional worship patterns, most probably in the 19th or 20th century by astrologers or temple networks trying to mirror Kumbh’s cyclical holiness.

V. What About Other Major River Festivals?

This overview examines the diverse river festivals across North, East, and South India, excluding the Kumbh Mela. It highlights how many significant water-based traditions are rooted in local customs and deity worship, often independent of astrological cycles, with some interesting recent inclusions and exclusions in pan-Indian festival frameworks.

Key Observations:

• North & East India (Excluding Kumbh): Many river festivals here, like Yamuna Jayanti and Chhath Puja (on Ganga), are seasonal or deity-based, not tied to Jupiter. Ganga Dussehra is a significant May-June event with no astrological basis. Major rivers like Mahanadi, Gandak, Kosi, and Teesta lack reported 12-yearly festivals. The Brahmaputra's Pushkaralu celebration is a recent addition without deep Assamese roots.
• Narmada & Tapti: The Narmada features the unique, spiritual Narmada Parikrama, not linked to Jupiter. The Tapti's omission from Pushkaralu is notable, contrasting with the Brahmaputra's inclusion.
• South India: The Kaveri has regional rituals like Theerthavari, but not a traditional Pushkaram cycle. The Pamba is associated with Sabarimala, not river-cycle festivals.

These findings confirm that Pushkaralu is a Telugu-centric innovation, not a pan-Indian or pan-South Indian tradition.

VI. Was Pushkaralu Invented in Response to Kumbh?

Very likely.

Kumbh has ancient references in Mahabharata, Padma Purana, and Vamana Purana.

British colonial fascination with Kumbh festivals at Prayagraj and Haridwar gave it prominence.

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Andhra Scholars may have mirrored this idea using local rivers and astrology to give Andhra its own Kumbh-equivalent.

Saraswati Pushkaralu, completely absent in British or medieval records, emerged post-1980s — possibly as:

An emotional revival of Vedic Saraswati myths

A tourism-driven invention to project Kaleshwaram as a "Triveni Sangam"

The use of "Antarvahini" (underground Saraswati) in Mt. Abu and Telangana is not supported by geological or hydrological science. It is a devotional metaphor, now repurposed as pseudo-history.

The Saraswati Myth: From Srisailam to Mt. Abu

In several temples — including Srisailam — claims are made about “Antarvahini Saraswati”:
- In Srisailam, a small water pit (gunda) inside the sanctum is declared to be the Saraswati’s underground flow.
- Similarly, Mt. Abu in Rajasthan and Mana village in Uttarakhand claim Saraswati's presence.

Yet, none of these:
- Have epigraphic evidence
- Are mentioned in Agamas or Puranas
- Have hydrological validation through modern science

These are devotional metaphors, which have sadly been converted into historical claims, often for tourism promotion or ritual commodification.

VII. Summary and Conclusion: Pushkaralu: A Modern Construct Rooted in Evolving Traditions

Contrary to popular belief, Pushkaralu, as practiced today, is not a millennia-old tradition. While river worship has deep roots in Indian spirituality, the structured 12-year cycle of Pushkaralu festivals appears to be a more recent development.

Historical Context:

• Major South Indian dynasties such as the Kakatiyas (12th–14th century CE), Reddy Kings (14th–15th century CE), and the Vijayanagara Empire (14th–17th century CE) have left behind extensive inscriptions and literary works. These documents detail temple constructions, donations, and various religious festivals. However, there is a conspicuous absence of any mention of Pushkaralu or a 12-year river festival cycle in these records.

Colonial Records:

• The earliest references to organized Pushkaralu festivals emerge from the 19th-century records of the Madras Presidency. District gazetteers from this period document large gatherings at the Godavari and Krishna rivers every 12 years, coinciding with Jupiter's transit. The term "Pushkaralu" appears in English transliterations within these administrative documents.

Evolution and Expansion:

• Initially, Pushkaralu festivals were associated primarily with the Godavari and Krishna rivers. Over time, the festival expanded to include other rivers, often based on astrological associations rather than historical or scriptural mandates. This expansion appears to be influenced by a desire to parallel the grandeur of North India's Kumbh Mela, leading to the incorporation of additional rivers and the establishment of a zodiac-based festival cycle.

Mythical Associations:

• Legends such as the "Antarvahini Saraswati," which claim the presence of the Saraswati River flowing underground at certain temples, have been integrated into the Pushkaralu narrative. These associations, while spiritually significant to devotees, lack historical and geological evidence.

Conclusion:
Pushkaralu, in its current form, is a layered narrative constructed over time, influenced by regional aspirations, colonial documentation, and evolving religious practices. While the festival holds deep spiritual significance for many, it's essential to distinguish between time-honored traditions and more recent developments.

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